Epidemiologic Features of Recovery From SARS-CoV-2 Infection

Key Points Question What variables are associated with time to recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection? Findings In this cohort study of 4708 participants in a US meta-cohort, the median self-reported time to recovery from SARS-CoV-2 infection was 20 days, and an estimated 22.5% had not recovered by 90 days. Women and adults with suboptimal prepandemic health, particularly clinical cardiovascular disease, had longer times to recovery, whereas vaccination prior to infection and infection during the Omicron variant wave were associated with shorter times to recovery. Meaning These findings suggest that interventions to reduce severity of acute infection, such as vaccination, may help to mitigate the increased risk of persistent symptoms observed in women and adults with suboptimal prepandemic health.


eMethods Cohort Descriptions
Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) 1 : The ARIC study began in the mid 1980s with initial aims for its cohort component being to describe the presence of subclinical atherosclerosis (mainly via carotid ultrasound), the progression of atherosclerosis to clinical cardiovascular disease (CVD), and the association of novel risk factors with CVD.ARIC recruited its cohort of 15,792 men and women aged 45-64 in 1987-89 from four communities: Forsyth County, NC; Jackson, MS; suburban Minneapolis, MN; and Washington County, MD.The investigators used probability sampling to obtain a community wide sample, exclusively sampling African Americans in Jackson and oversampling African Americans in Forsyth County.ARIC conducted a baseline examination of cohort participants and up to eight subsequent examinations prior to the pandemic, with additional follow-up ongoing; performed annual or semi-annual telephone follow-up interviews; and throughout has identified and validated incident CVD and other outcomes, particularly cognitive decline in recent years.
Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) 2 : CARDIA is a study examining the development and determinants of clinical and subclinical CVD and their risk factors.It began in 1985-1986 with a cohort of 5115 Black and White men and women aged 18-30 years.The participants were selected so that there would be approximately the same number of people in subgroups of race (Black and White), gender (women and men), education (high school or less and more than high school) and age (18-24 and 25-30 years) in each of 4 field centers: Birmingham, AL; Chicago, IL; Minneapolis, MN; and Oakland, CA.These same participants were asked to participate in follow-up examinations during 1987-1988 (Year 2), 1990-1991 (Year 5), 1992-1993 (Year 7), 1995-1996  A majority of the group has been examined at each of the follow-up examinations (91%, 86%, 81%, 79%, 74%, 72%, 72%, 71%, and 67% [despite the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Year 35], respectively).While the specific aims of each examination have varied, data have been collected on a variety of factors believed to be related to heart disease.These include conditions with clear links to heart disease such as blood pressure, cholesterol and other lipids, and glucose.Data have also been collected on physical measurements such as weight and body composition as well as lifestyle factors such as dietary and exercise patterns, substance use (tobacco and alcohol), behavioral and psychological variables, medical and family history, and other chemistries (e.g., insulin).In addition, subclinical atherosclerosis has been measured via echocardiography during Years 5, 10, 25, and 30, a chest CT scan during Years 15, 20, 25, and 35, an abdominal CT scan during Years 25 and 35, and carotid ultrasound during Year 20.A brain MRI was performed on a subset of participants at Years 25, 30, and 35.The CARDIA cohort, born between 1955 and 1968, has been influenced substantially by the obesity epidemic at ages younger than participants in other established NHLBI cohorts.Further investigation of the mechanisms linking obesity to derangements in cardiovascular structure and function and the etiology of clinical events promises to generate important new knowledge to inform health promotion and disease prevention efforts. 3: COPDGene is a non-interventional, multicenter, longitudinal, case-control study at 21 US sites of smokers with a ≥10 pack-year history with and without COPD and healthy never smokers.The goal was to characterize disease-related phenotypes and explore associations with susceptibility genes.COPDGene research participants were extensively phenotyped with the use of comprehensive symptom and comorbidity questionnaires, spirometry, chest CT scans, and genetic and biomarker profiling.The study enrolled 10,198 participants.COPDGene has had 3 exams that include spirometry, diffusing capacity, lung CT scans and other measures; its current exam is ongoing.COPDGene examines the influence of age, sex, and race on the natural history of COPD, and the impact of comorbid conditions, chronic bronchitis, exacerbations, and asthma/COPD overlap.

Genetic Epidemiology of COPD (COPDGene)
Framingham Heart Study (FHS) 4 : FHS was initiated in 1948.Researchers recruited 5,209 men and women between the ages of 30 and 62 from the town of Framingham, Massachusetts, and began the first round of extensive physical examinations and lifestyle interviews that they would later analyze for common patterns related to CVD development.Since 1948, the subjects have returned to the study every two years for an examination consisting of a detailed medical history, physical examination, and laboratory tests, and in 1971, the study enrolled a second-generation cohort -5,124 of the original participants' adult children and their spouses -to participate in similar examinations.The second examination of the Offspring cohort occurred eight years after the first examination, and subsequent examinations have occurred approximately every four years thereafter.In April 2002 the Study entered a new phase: the enrollment of a third generation of participants, the grandchildren of the original cohort.The first examination of the Third Generation Study was completed in July 2005 and involved 4,095 participants.Thus, the FHS has evolved into a prospective, community-based, three generation family study.6][7] : HCHS/SOL is an ongoing population based prospective cohort study of 16,415 community dwelling Hispanic/Latino adults aged 18-74 years at baseline, recruited from four urban field centers with large populations of Hispanics/ Latinos (Bronx, NY; Chicago, IL; Miami, FL; and San Diego, CA).A two-stage area probability sample of households was selected, with stratification and over-sampling at each stage to ensure a diverse and representative sample. 6Participants self-identified as Hispanic/Latino and of Cuban, Dominican, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Central American, South American, or other/more than one heritage.Study participants underwent an extensive clinic exam and assessments to determine baseline risk factors (2008-2011), 7 and annual telephone follow-up interviews for ascertainment of cardiovascular and pulmonary events.A second clinic visit was conducted in 2014-2017, and a third clinic visit is now in process (2020-2022).The overall retention rate as of December 2019 was 81.9%.The primary goals of the HCHS/SOL are to describe: (1) the prevalence and incidence of cardiovascular, pulmonary, and other major chronic conditions (2) the risk and/or protective factors associated with these conditions; and (3) the relationships between the initial sociodemographic and health profiles and future health events in the target population.The study to date has revealed a high prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, with significant variability by Hispanic/Latino heritage and sociodemographic factors such as income and time in the United States. 5ckson Heart Study (JHS) [8][9][10] : The JHS is a community-based cohort study evaluating risk factors for cardiovascular and related diseases among adult African Americans residing in the three counties (Hinds, Madison, and Rankin) that make up the Jackson, Mississippi metropolitan area.Data and biologic materials have been collected from 5,306 participants, including a nested family cohort of 1,498 members of 264 families. Th age at enrollment for the unrelated cohort was 35-84 years; the family cohort included related individuals >21 years old.Participants have provided extensive medical and psychosocial histories and had an array of physical and biochemical measurements and diagnostic procedures during a baseline examination (2000-2004) and two follow-up examinations (2005-2008 and  2009-2012).Samples for genomic DNA were collected during the first two examinations.Annual followup interviews and cohort surveillance of cardiovascular events and mortality are continuing and a fourth examination is in progress.

Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians
Living in America (MASALA) study 11,12 : South Asians comprise almost one-quarter of the world's population and are the second fastest growing ethnic group in the US.The MASALA Study is a prospective cohort of South Asians called the MASALA study, which is closely tied to the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), for valid cross-ethnic comparisons. 12MASALA enrolled 906 South Asians in 2010-2013 and then added a new wave of 258 South Asian participants from 2017-2018, for a full cohort size of 1,164. 11The original MASALA cohort has been followed for approximately 8.5 years, and completed a second clinical exam in early 2018.A third MASALA clinical exam is planned for 2022-2024.75 papers have been published from MASALA to date, and the findings clearly show that the US South Asian population has a distinct phenotype compared to the other four race/ethnic groups studied in MESA.Major findings have included a higher prevalence of diabetes, ectopic adiposity and coronary artery calcium compared to MESA.The MASALA study findings have influenced guidelines for diabetes screening, lipid management, and raised awareness of South Asian CVD risk.MASALA is filling a large gap in scientific knowledge about CVD in a large, growing Asian American subgroup. 13: MESA is a study of the characteristics of subclinical CVD (disease detected non-invasively before it has produced clinical signs and symptoms) and the risk factors that predict progression to clinically overt cardiovascular disease or progression of the subclinical disease.MESA researchers study a diverse, population-based sample of 6,814 men and women aged 45-84 without known clinical cardiovascular disease.Thirty-eight percent of the recruited participants are white, 28 percent African-American, 22 percent Hispanic, and 12 percent of Chinese descent.Participants were recruited from six field centers across the United States: Wake Forest University, Columbia University, Johns Hopkins University, University of Minnesota, Northwestern University and University of California -Los Angeles.At baseline, each participant received an extensive physical exam and determination of coronary artery calcification, ventricular mass and function, flowmediated endothelial vasodilation, carotid intimal-medial wall thickness and presence of echogenic lucencies in the carotid artery, lower extremity vascular insufficiency, arterial wave forms, electrocardiographic (ECG) measures, standard coronary risk factors, sociodemographic factors, lifestyle factors, and psychosocial factors.Selected repetition of subclinical disease measures and risk factors at follow-up visits allows study of the progression of disease.Blood samples have been assayed for putative biochemical and genetic risk factors and stored for case-control studies.Participants are being followed for identification and characterization of cardiovascular disease events, including acute myocardial infarction and other forms of coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, and heart failure; for CVD interventions; and for mortality.The first examination took place over two years, from July 2000 -July 2002.It has been followed by six examination periods that were 17-20 months in length.Participants have been contacted every 9 to 12 months throughout the study to assess clinical morbidity and mortality.

Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)
Northern Manhattan Study (NOMAS) 14 : NOMAS began in 1993 as a population-based incidence and case-control study.In 1998 (cycle 2) the study evolved into a prospective cohort study of 3,298 strokefree, tri-ethnic, community subjects followed annually to detect stroke, MI, and death.Starting in 2003 (cycle 3), subclinical measures (brain MRI & carotid ultrasound) and the first complete neuropsychological (NP) battery were collected on 1290 members (MRI cohort).The project has remained productive through subsequent cycles.As the cohort aged, the specific aims grew to include not only vascular determinants of stroke but also cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia.NOMAS participates in collaborative studies on genetics, stroke, MRI markers, Alzheimer Disease and neurodegenerative diseases.One of the major interests of the study has been the exploration of inflammatory and infectious contributors to stroke risk, subclinical atherosclerotic and cerebrovascular disease, and cognitive decline.The NOMAS community cohort of 3,298 subjects was assembled from a population-based, random sample based on the following criteria: (1) resident of at least 3 months of Northern Manhattan; (2) randomly derived from a household with a telephone; (3) age 40 or older at baseline (changed to age 55 in 1998); and (4) no history of stroke.The 1,290 subjects in the MRI cohort (median age 70 at MRI; 60% women, 15% non-Hispanic White, 17% non-Hispanic Black, 66% Hispanic, 2% Other) were evaluated with a standardized brain MRI and NP battery between 2003-08.The cohort has been prospectively followed with annual telephone contacts, including the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICS), and 3 in depth neuropsychological evaluations at 5 year intervals in the MRI cohort.The aging cohort is representative of an elderly, urban, diverse community at risk for cognitive decline.A wealth of data was collected during baseline enrollment and at time of MRI and 1 st NP visit, including socio-demographics, psychosocial and socioeconomic status (education, occupational attainment, insurance status), medical history, medications, risk factors, family history and other health data, behavioral/environmental factors, subclinical vascular measures, serum biomarkers (infectious burden, neuroimmune markers using a novel multiplex assay, HOMA index for insulin resistance, adiponectin, CRP, homocysteine), carotid imaging, echocardiographic imaging (LV, LA size), ambulatory BP and cardiac rhythm monitoring, brain MRI biomarkers (regional brain volumes, regional white matter lesion burden, hippocampal volumes, cortical thickness, covert infarcts, cerebral microbleeds, perivascular spaces, brain arterial diameters), and genetic markers (GWAS, ApoE4).Fasting blood was collected and stored at baseline and at MRI. Subjects had complete blood count, chemistry profile, total protein, albumin, calcium, markers of mineral metabolism (fibroblast growth factor 23, parathyroid hormone, 1,25OH and 25OH vitamin D, and phosphate), CRP, TNF receptor levels, IL-6, and serologies against some viral and bacterial pathogens.Fasting plasma levels were assayed for total and HDL cholesterol, lipoprotein (a), HDL particle size, triglycerides, lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2, homocysteine, serum insulin levels, and adiponectin.Buffy coats and DNA were stored on 2433 subjects and ApoE4 genotype is available on the MRI cohort.We continue to follow the cohort with annual telephone contacts and a 4 th NP assessment to track cognitive trajectories and adjudicate MCI and dementia.Cognitive, functional, quality of life, and social situation questions are assessed annually.The National Death Index is consulted periodically for those with unknown vital status.An I surveillance system at CUIMC detects hospitalizations, ED visits, and clinical visits.Remarkably, only 3 (0.38%) subjects are lost, and 11 (1.4%) have withdrawn from active participation.

Prevent Pulmonary Fibrosis (PrePF):
PrePF has been investigating the clinical, physiologic and genetic phenotypes of interstitial lung disease (ILD) by focusing on families with two or more cases of ILD and individuals with sporadic IPF.It has recruited over 1200 families with two or more cases of pulmonary fibrosis.These families with pulmonary fibrosis include 2837 individuals with probable or definite idiopathic interstitial pneumonia (IIP) and 2404 unaffected FDRs.In addition, PrePF recruited over 10,000 individuals with sporadic idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). 15: the REGARDS cohort is one of the nation's largest, most comprehensive population-based cohorts, its innovative home-and telephone-based data collection is nimble and cost-efficient.REGARDS centrally recruited and initially examined 30,239 non-Hispanic Black and White men and women aged ≥45 years in 2003-7 by telephone and in participant homes across the 48 contiguous US states (62% of US counties).Over 17 years, REGARDS has collected follow-up data by computer-assisted telephone interviews (CATI), participant collaboration in at-home tasks (i.e., actigraphy), and a 2 nd in-home visit.REGARDS oversampled Black individuals and residents of the southeastern United States known as the Stroke Belt and 17% reside in rural areas.REGARDS currently follows ~11,000 surviving participants.Comprehensive available data include adjudicated health events, social determinants of health (SDOH), cognition, biomarkers and genomics.Participants currently have mean age 76.9 (range 57-105), are 37% Black, have high cardiovascular risk, and 54% reside in the southeast -all factors associated with COVID-19 risk and adverse outcomes.Participants are geocoded, and linked to administrative data such as EPA and Medicare.Biorepositories were assembled in 2003-2007 and 2013-2016.

REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS)
Severe Asthma Research Program (SARP) 16 : SARP has been investigating the clinical, physiologic and molecular phenotypes of asthma since 2000.It is currently following ~400 deeply phenotyped asthma patients (60% severe), most with sputum samples, bronchoscopies, lung CTs, allergy status, spirometry and biobanking. 17: SPIROMICS is a multi-center, observational, longitudinal case-control study designed to guide future development of therapies for COPD by 1) providing robust criteria for sub-classifying COPD participants into groups most likely to benefit from a given therapy during a clinical trial, thereby improving the chances of successful outcome; and 2) identifying biomarkers and phenotypes that can be used as intermediate outcomes to reliably predict clinical benefit during therapeutic trials.The baseline exam included morphometric measures, spirometry, six-minute walk, an inspiratory and expiratory chest CT, and a set of standardized questionnaires.Biospecimens, including plasma, serum, DNA, urine and induced sputum, have been collected and stored.SPIROMICS has recruited 2,983 COPD cases and controls, 40-80 years old with 20+ or <1 pack-years of smoking at 12 US sites in 2010-2015.SPIROMICS has a baseline and 4 followup exams, that include spirometry, lung CT scans, sputum induction and, in a subset, bronchoscopies; its current exam is ongoing. 18,19: SHS was designed to respond to the recommendations from the Subcommittee on Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease of the Secretary of Health and Human Service's Task Force on Black and Minority Health that concluded that information on cardiovascular disease (CVD) in American Indians was inadequate.In its initial stages, the SHS included three components.The first was a survey to determine cardiovascular disease mortality rates from 1984 to 1994 among tribal members aged 35-74 years of age residing in the 3 study areas (the community mortality study).The second was the clinical examination of 4,500 eligible tribal members.The third component is the morbidity and mortality (M&M) surveillance of these 4,500 participants.SHS has completed three clinical examinations of the original Cohort in Phase I 1989-1991; Phase II: 1993-1995; 1998-1999, respectively.In Phases III-V, SHS expanded to include genetic epidemiologic studies and family-based genetics studies due to the importance of genetics in the occurrence of CVD.Phase VI was a surveillance of the original SHS cohort and of the SHS family study participants to better understand CVD, cancer, liver disease, and inflammation in American Indians.Phase VII is currently underway with continued surveillance beginning February 2019 for a seven-year duration.The SHS Phase VII exam serves as a platform for in-depth ancillary studies that are funded outside of the SHS contracts.

Follow-up for SARS-CoV-2 infection in C4R
Of C4R questionnaire respondents, follow-up for incident infection was complete for 41,461 (84.0%) over the first six months; for 35,790 (72.5%) over the first 12 months; and 10,795 (21.9%) over the first 24 months.Details regarding timing of questionnaire administration are provided in eTable 2. The flow chart for sample selection is provided as eFigure 1.

Covariate definition
Age, sex, and educational attainment were self-reported at enrollment into each cohort study.Age at enrollment into C4R in March 2020 was calculated from age at cohort enrollment.Since categories to self-report race and ethnicity differed by cohort, they were harmonized into a single classification (American Indian, Asian, Non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, Non-Hispanic White).
Pre-pandemic health measures were obtained for each individual cohort from the examination closest to the time of C4R enrollment, with a median interval of 5 years (25 th percentile, 4; 75 th percentile, 12) (eTable 1). 20Height, weight, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured using standardized methods.Blood glucose and creatinine were measured in fasting blood samples.BMI was categorized by current CDC thresholds.Current smoking status was assessed at the most recent cohort examination by self-report, with biochemical verification in a subset.Medication use was self-reported or assessed via medication inventories.Diabetes was self-reported or defined by fasting blood glucose (≥126 mg/dL) or use of hypoglycemic medications.Hypertension was defined by blood pressure (≥140/90 mmHg) or use of anti-hypertensive medications.Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated by the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation.Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) was defined by eGFR < 45 ml/min/1.73m 2 . 21A history of clinical cardiovascular disease (CVD) was defined as a prior self-report of myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, or heart failure, or the occurrence of relevant, adjudicated health events over cohort follow-up prior to the pandemic.A history of asthma, COPD, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis was self-reported.A history of elevated depressive symptoms was defined by a score of 10 or greater on the 10-item Centers for Epidemiologic Depression (CES-D) scale.

Analyses
For Cox proportional hazards models, the proportional hazards assumption was confirmed by residual plots.Participants who had not recovered by 90 days were censored at 90 days on the conservative assumption that proportionality may not hold among outliers with recovery times significantly greater than 90 days.For mediation analyses, time-to-recovery was modeled using a Weibull accelerated failure time model, and ordinal logistic regression was used to model infection severity.

Multiple imputation
Multiple imputation of missing data among participants with a history of infection was performed based on the variables in the main model as well as infection severity, region, source cohort, recovery status, and observed recovery or censoring time transformed using the Nelson-Aalen estimate. 22We assumed that data were missing at random.The imputation was conducted using the "mice" package in the R statistical software. 23Participants with missing recovery time were excluded from the primary analyses.Results across 10 imputed datasets were combined by Rubin's Rule.

eFigure 1 .eFigure 2 .eFigure 3 .
CONSORT Diagram of Participants Included in Analyses.Target population includes cohort participants believed to be alive and not lost-to-follow-up on March 1, 2020.*Selected participants did complete a C4R data element but not consent to data sharing on the C4R Analysis Commons by the time of manuscript preparation; these participants are included in N=3,362.Correlates of Recovery by 90 Days After SARS-CoV-2 Infection, After Multivariable Adjustment, Stratified by Vaccination Status at Time of Infection.Effect estimates for unvaccinated cases indicated by empty dots, and effect estimates for vaccinated cases indicated by black dots.Correlates that were significantly associated in the main model are highlighted in orange.There were no statistically significant interaction terms for vaccination status.Null effect (HR = 1.0) indicated by red line.CKD = eGFR < 45 ml/min/1.73m 2 © 2024 Oelsner EC et al.JAMA Network Open.Restricted Mean Recovery Time in Days Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection, by Cohort.
Am Ind = American Indian; As = Asian American; B = Black; H/L = Hispanic/Latinx; NHW = Non-Hispanic White.ARIC = Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study; C4R = Collaborative Cohort of Cohorts for COVID-19 Research; CARDIA = Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults; COPDGene= Genetic Epidemiology of COPD; FHS = Framingham Heart Study; HCHS/SOL = Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos; JHS = Jackson Heart Study; MASALA = Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America; MESA = Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis; NOMAS = Northern Manhattan Study; PrePF = Prevent Pulmonary Fibrosis; REGARDS = Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke; SARP = Severe Asthma Research Program; SPIROMICS = Subpopulations and Intermediate Outcome Measures in COPD Study; SHS = Strong Heart Study a For C4R participants who did not attend the most recent pre-pandemic cohort exam, the most recent measure from any prior cohort exam was used.bARIC did not inquire regarding Hispanic/Latino ethnicity, hence White participants cannot be definitely defined as non-Hispanic.©2024 Oelsner EC et al.JAMA Network Open.eTable 2.

Questionnaire Administration, Including Response Rates and Availability of Complete Data for Analysis, by COHORT.
Definition of Infection, Infection Severity, and Time to Recovery Via C4R Wave 1 Questionnaires, Administered April 1, 2020, Through May 29, 2022.Definition of Infection, Infection Severity, and Time to Recovery Via C4R Wave 2 Questionnaires, Administered March 1, 2021, Through February 28, 2023.Classification of Selected COVID-19 Outcomes Available in C4R as Confirmed vs Probably, and Number (Percent) of Cases in the Analytic Sample (n = 4708).Missingness of Covariate Data Among Participants Included in the Analysis.Comparison of Characteristics of Infected C4R Participants Included vs Not Included in the Analytic Sample.a Correlates of Recovery by 90 Days After SARS-CoV-2 Infection After Multivariable Adjustment, Adjusted for Disease Severity.Cox proportional hazards models were estimated to assess associations of time-to-recovery with the correlates of interest.Estimates were generated from models adjusted for all the correlates listed in the table.Hazards ratios (HRs) greater than one indicate faster recovery, whereas HRs less than one indicate slower recovery.Restricted mean recovery time estimated from Kaplan Meier curves censored at 90 days following reinfection.Log rank tests were used to test for differences in restricted mean recovery time according covariates.eTable 10.Main Correlates of Recovery in Time to Event Models, Including Cases of Asymptomatic or Fatal SARS-CoV-2 Infection.Cox proportional hazards models were performed to assess associations of time-to-recovery with the correlates of interest.Estimates were generated from models adjusted for all of the covariates listed in the table.Hazards ratios (HRs) greater than one indicate faster recovery, whereas HRs less than one indicate slower recovery.Estimates with a p-value of <0.05 are indicated in bold text.Cox proportional hazards models were performed to assess associations of time-to-recovery with the correlates of interest.Estimates were generated from models adjusted for all of the covariates listed in the table.Hazards ratios (HRs) greater than one indicate faster recovery, whereas HRs less than one indicate slower recovery.eTable 12. Main Correlates of Recovery in Time to Event Models, Without Stratification by Cohort, Adjusting for Race, Ethnicity, and Cohort.Main Correlates of Recovery in Time to Event Models, After Exclusion of Selected Cohorts.Cox proportional hazards models were performed to assess associations of time-to-recovery with the correlates of interest.Models treated cohort as a stratum term, allowing each cohort to have its own baseline hazard function.Estimates were generated from models adjusted for all of the covariates listed in the table.Hazards ratios (HRs) greater than one indicate faster recovery, whereas HRs less than one indicate slower recovery.
*Estimates of the number of participants who would were developed by each cohort prior to study enrollment.In several cases, a greater number of participants was enrolled than was originally estimated.Row percents reported.ARIC = AtherosclerosisRisk in Communities Study; C4R = Collaborative Cohort of Cohorts for COVID-19 Research; CARDIA = Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults; COPDGene= Genetic Epidemiology of COPD; FHS = Framingham Heart Study; HCHS/SOL = Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos; JHS = Jackson Heart Study; MASALA = Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America; MESA = Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis; NOMAS = Northern Manhattan Study; PrePF = Prevent Pulmonary Fibrosis; REGARDS = Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke; SARP = Severe Asthma Research Program; SPIROMICS = Subpopulations and Intermediate Outcome Measures in COPD Study; SHS = Strong Heart Study eTable 3. a Not included in Wave 1 Questionnaire in REGARDS.bNotincluded in Wave 1 Questionnaire in ARIC, CARDIA, HCHS/SOL, or REGARDS.cNotincluded in Wave 1 Questionnaire in COPDGene, REGARDS or SHS.d Included in cohorts that initiated the Wave 1 Questionnaire in 2021.©2024OelsnerECet al.JAMA Network Open.eTable 4. Have you received a vaccine for COVID-19?When were you vaccinated?How many doses did you receive?© 2024 Oelsner EC et al.JAMA Network Open.eTable 5. a No imputed data included.eTable8.a a a a Excludes 862 probable (non-definite) infections for a sample size of 3659.b a